Abstract
Racial profiling is any police or private security practice in which a person is treated as a suspect because of his or her race, ethnicity, nationality or religion. Cops think that targeting people by any of these factors decrease the rate of criminals out there. Ever since September 11, many cops think that the enemy is closer than what they think. On the other hand, many Americans
feel discriminated by these actions. Many innocent people have been pulled over and searched without a probable cause. Americans not only feel discriminated are also building anger towards their own country. Therefore, this report is written to show how racial profiling is effective. It will determine whether racial profiling is constitutional or unconstitutional. It consists of explanations on the effects and increase or decrease of racial profiling. In addition, it will conclude if cops should continue using this type of method to decrease crime in the United States.
Racial Profiling: A Review of the Literature
Many people living in America have experienced racial profiling. Racial profiling is the practice of substituting skin color for evidence as grounds for suspicion. Cops think this is a good method that will decrease crimes in America. On the other hand, many citizens say this is a violation of their civil rights and that it is a discrimination against people of skin color. In order to be able to understand whether this practice is legal or illegal, the following questions will be answered:
1. Where is racial profiling prominent in America?
2. What are the effects of racial profiling?
3. How has racial profiling increased or decreased over the years?
4. What are the results of SB 1070 law being passed, and how has this affected Arizona’s citizens?
The following review on literature will focus on these questions and will provide information about racial profiling and its effectiveness.
Where is racial profiling prominent in America?
Racial profiling is more prominent in the following states: Arizona, California, Maryland, New York, and New Jersey. There are a lot of studies in which show statistics on how many colored skin people experience racial profiling. This does not mean that other states in America do not experience racial profiling. They all confront this issue but have a lower percent of claims. Racial profiling mainly occurs because “…police investigate, stop, risk, search or use force against a person based on such characteristics instead of evidence of a person’s criminal behavior. It often involves the stopping and searching of people of color for traffic violations, known as “DWB” or “Driving while black or brown”” (About the Campaign Against racial Profiling, 2008). A Study conducted by John Lamberth, a Temple University professor and statistician, in 1993 on highway I-95 in New Jersey showed that 73.2% of individuals stopped and arrested were African-Americans. In addition, only 13.5% of all vehicles on I-95 had an African-American driver or passenger which was approximately 35% of the total traffic stops by the State Police (Lamberth, 1998).
In the blog titled, Black Voices, Keith Rushing talks about police engaged in a pattern or practice of discriminatory policing targeting Latinos (Rushing, 2013). He mentions various cases that occurred in North Carolina, Arizona, and New York. “Also, in 2011 the NYPD conducted a record number of racially biases stops through its stop-and-frisk policy. Some 685,724 people were stopped and frisked, 87 percent of whom were Black and Latino residents. But Black and Latinos compromise 52 percent of New York City’s total population” (Rushing, 2013). Therefore, the main targets who cops assume are criminals are those with skin color. Rushing strongly believes that racial profiling is an entry point for many people into the criminal justice system where continued differential treatment and sentencing disparities have contributed to the mass incarceration of African Americans and Latinos.
Many cops dedicate their lives to fight over crime. Ever since the attack on September 11, America is more alert that the enemy is within. Therefore, America searches a persons’ background when taking a flight. This is to secure the home land. The reason why most people think that cops are racial profiling is because “…in most Major American cities, young black and Latino men are still overwhelmingly the most likely perpetrators of many kinds of crime” (Zakaria, 2002). Zakaria also mentions that the behavior of a person is the giveaway if that person is either a terrorist or a criminal. He says, “If the pool of suspects is overwhelming of a particular ethnic/racial/religious group then it only makes sense to pay greater attention to people of that background” (Zakaria, 2002). Cops strongly believe this is the way they will be able to find dangerous criminals and decrease crime rate in America.
What are the effects of racial profiling?
The effects of racial profiling have been negative and positive. It has target innocent people who have no criminal records. On the other hand, it has also helped to find criminals and decrease crimes. There have been many cases in which innocent people have felt discriminated because of cops stopping them just by seeing the skin color instead of actually violating a law. The Rights Working Group (RWG) released a video about a Muslim man who has been discriminated by cops. He says that in America people judge books by its cover. That is because they take the actions of a few people and apply that behavior for all people of that same race. Hilary Shelton says, “Racial profiling affects everyone, if we live in a community in which any sec men of our community is being target then the whole community is said to be that particular way” (Face the truth: Racial profiling across America, 2010). The Muslim says he thought in America you were free to go wherever you want whenever you want but one day he was pulled over because of suspicious activities. He was interrogated stripped and after the cops were done belittling him he was released with no citation. Karen Narasaki, an Asian American Justice Center, says, “Racial profiling clearly violates our Constitution, our right to equal protection under the law or due process. People need to be identified not simply because of their race, religion or their national origin. When law enforcement does that, it starts to undermine the confidence in communities” (Face the truth: Racial profiling across America, 2010).
Another matter, Tyler Perry a famous actor experienced racial profiling on the streets of Atlanta by two white officers. He was stopped because of an incomplete stop made at a red light when turning right. Perry said, “My mother would always say to me, ‘if you get stopped by the police, especially if they are white policemen, you say ‘yes sir’ and ‘no sir’, and if they want to take you in, you go with them. Don’t resist, you hear me”’ (Hammer, 2012). Tyler Perry was so confused on what was going on and thought the situation was going to get out of control. He also mentioned that these cops were being so aggressive that he did not feel safe. After a while of discussion with the cops, an African American cop arrived at the scene and gave an ‘oh no’ look and explained to the cops who
they had stopped. One white officer apologized and went on their way. Tyler did say he would be screaming on top of his lungs regarding this issue so that it comes to an end (Hammer, 2012). With this said, racial profiling not only discriminates a person but it also makes that person angry towards their own country.
On the other hand, using racial profiling helps the police and law enforcement to cut down the possible suspects of a crime. They are not to be discriminatory instead, they want to ensure that they finish all cases properly and by the book. “Even though it is currently illegal for law enforcement in the United States to use racial profiling in general, they are allowed to stop people in vehicles if they match the description of a suspect in a crime based on their ethnicity or the law enforcement officer has probable cause that the motorist is behaving strangely and might be involved in a criminal activity or was recently involved in a criminal activity” (Can racial profiling be a useful way to identify potential criminals?, 2008). The author also mentions that in a book titled “Color of Crime” in 1999 mentioned statistics of how crimes related to ethnicity. “…Blacks are seven times more likely than people of other races to commit murder, and eight times more likely to commit robbery. Backs are 15 times more likely [to be in a gang than Caucasians] (Color of Crime, 1999)” (Can racial profiling be a useful way to identify potential criminals?, 2008). Therefore, racial profiling can be an effective method to use when trying to investigate and close a crime case.
How has racial profiling increased or decreased over the years?
Over the years, racial profiling has increased dramatically. “Tens of thousands of innocent drivers, pedestrians, and shoppers across the country are victims of racial profiling. And these discriminatory police stops and searches have reached epidemic proportions in recent years” (About the campaign against racial profiling, 2008). As you can see in Figure 1, the Department of Justice and the Bureau of Justice Statistics conducted their own research regarding the percentage of drivers stopped according to their race. In 2002-2005 there has been an average of almost the same amount of stops within Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics. You can also see that many Hispanics and Blacks have not only been stopped but also have been searched. In 2005, 9.5% of Black people have been searched, 8.8% of Hispanic people have been searched, and 3.6% of White people have been searched.
Racial profiling is any police or private security practice in which a person is treated as a suspect because of his or her race, ethnicity, nationality or religion. Cops think that targeting people by any of these factors decrease the rate of criminals out there. Ever since September 11, many cops think that the enemy is closer than what they think. On the other hand, many Americans
feel discriminated by these actions. Many innocent people have been pulled over and searched without a probable cause. Americans not only feel discriminated are also building anger towards their own country. Therefore, this report is written to show how racial profiling is effective. It will determine whether racial profiling is constitutional or unconstitutional. It consists of explanations on the effects and increase or decrease of racial profiling. In addition, it will conclude if cops should continue using this type of method to decrease crime in the United States.
Racial Profiling: A Review of the Literature
Many people living in America have experienced racial profiling. Racial profiling is the practice of substituting skin color for evidence as grounds for suspicion. Cops think this is a good method that will decrease crimes in America. On the other hand, many citizens say this is a violation of their civil rights and that it is a discrimination against people of skin color. In order to be able to understand whether this practice is legal or illegal, the following questions will be answered:
1. Where is racial profiling prominent in America?
2. What are the effects of racial profiling?
3. How has racial profiling increased or decreased over the years?
4. What are the results of SB 1070 law being passed, and how has this affected Arizona’s citizens?
The following review on literature will focus on these questions and will provide information about racial profiling and its effectiveness.
Where is racial profiling prominent in America?
Racial profiling is more prominent in the following states: Arizona, California, Maryland, New York, and New Jersey. There are a lot of studies in which show statistics on how many colored skin people experience racial profiling. This does not mean that other states in America do not experience racial profiling. They all confront this issue but have a lower percent of claims. Racial profiling mainly occurs because “…police investigate, stop, risk, search or use force against a person based on such characteristics instead of evidence of a person’s criminal behavior. It often involves the stopping and searching of people of color for traffic violations, known as “DWB” or “Driving while black or brown”” (About the Campaign Against racial Profiling, 2008). A Study conducted by John Lamberth, a Temple University professor and statistician, in 1993 on highway I-95 in New Jersey showed that 73.2% of individuals stopped and arrested were African-Americans. In addition, only 13.5% of all vehicles on I-95 had an African-American driver or passenger which was approximately 35% of the total traffic stops by the State Police (Lamberth, 1998).
In the blog titled, Black Voices, Keith Rushing talks about police engaged in a pattern or practice of discriminatory policing targeting Latinos (Rushing, 2013). He mentions various cases that occurred in North Carolina, Arizona, and New York. “Also, in 2011 the NYPD conducted a record number of racially biases stops through its stop-and-frisk policy. Some 685,724 people were stopped and frisked, 87 percent of whom were Black and Latino residents. But Black and Latinos compromise 52 percent of New York City’s total population” (Rushing, 2013). Therefore, the main targets who cops assume are criminals are those with skin color. Rushing strongly believes that racial profiling is an entry point for many people into the criminal justice system where continued differential treatment and sentencing disparities have contributed to the mass incarceration of African Americans and Latinos.
Many cops dedicate their lives to fight over crime. Ever since the attack on September 11, America is more alert that the enemy is within. Therefore, America searches a persons’ background when taking a flight. This is to secure the home land. The reason why most people think that cops are racial profiling is because “…in most Major American cities, young black and Latino men are still overwhelmingly the most likely perpetrators of many kinds of crime” (Zakaria, 2002). Zakaria also mentions that the behavior of a person is the giveaway if that person is either a terrorist or a criminal. He says, “If the pool of suspects is overwhelming of a particular ethnic/racial/religious group then it only makes sense to pay greater attention to people of that background” (Zakaria, 2002). Cops strongly believe this is the way they will be able to find dangerous criminals and decrease crime rate in America.
What are the effects of racial profiling?
The effects of racial profiling have been negative and positive. It has target innocent people who have no criminal records. On the other hand, it has also helped to find criminals and decrease crimes. There have been many cases in which innocent people have felt discriminated because of cops stopping them just by seeing the skin color instead of actually violating a law. The Rights Working Group (RWG) released a video about a Muslim man who has been discriminated by cops. He says that in America people judge books by its cover. That is because they take the actions of a few people and apply that behavior for all people of that same race. Hilary Shelton says, “Racial profiling affects everyone, if we live in a community in which any sec men of our community is being target then the whole community is said to be that particular way” (Face the truth: Racial profiling across America, 2010). The Muslim says he thought in America you were free to go wherever you want whenever you want but one day he was pulled over because of suspicious activities. He was interrogated stripped and after the cops were done belittling him he was released with no citation. Karen Narasaki, an Asian American Justice Center, says, “Racial profiling clearly violates our Constitution, our right to equal protection under the law or due process. People need to be identified not simply because of their race, religion or their national origin. When law enforcement does that, it starts to undermine the confidence in communities” (Face the truth: Racial profiling across America, 2010).
Another matter, Tyler Perry a famous actor experienced racial profiling on the streets of Atlanta by two white officers. He was stopped because of an incomplete stop made at a red light when turning right. Perry said, “My mother would always say to me, ‘if you get stopped by the police, especially if they are white policemen, you say ‘yes sir’ and ‘no sir’, and if they want to take you in, you go with them. Don’t resist, you hear me”’ (Hammer, 2012). Tyler Perry was so confused on what was going on and thought the situation was going to get out of control. He also mentioned that these cops were being so aggressive that he did not feel safe. After a while of discussion with the cops, an African American cop arrived at the scene and gave an ‘oh no’ look and explained to the cops who
they had stopped. One white officer apologized and went on their way. Tyler did say he would be screaming on top of his lungs regarding this issue so that it comes to an end (Hammer, 2012). With this said, racial profiling not only discriminates a person but it also makes that person angry towards their own country.
On the other hand, using racial profiling helps the police and law enforcement to cut down the possible suspects of a crime. They are not to be discriminatory instead, they want to ensure that they finish all cases properly and by the book. “Even though it is currently illegal for law enforcement in the United States to use racial profiling in general, they are allowed to stop people in vehicles if they match the description of a suspect in a crime based on their ethnicity or the law enforcement officer has probable cause that the motorist is behaving strangely and might be involved in a criminal activity or was recently involved in a criminal activity” (Can racial profiling be a useful way to identify potential criminals?, 2008). The author also mentions that in a book titled “Color of Crime” in 1999 mentioned statistics of how crimes related to ethnicity. “…Blacks are seven times more likely than people of other races to commit murder, and eight times more likely to commit robbery. Backs are 15 times more likely [to be in a gang than Caucasians] (Color of Crime, 1999)” (Can racial profiling be a useful way to identify potential criminals?, 2008). Therefore, racial profiling can be an effective method to use when trying to investigate and close a crime case.
How has racial profiling increased or decreased over the years?
Over the years, racial profiling has increased dramatically. “Tens of thousands of innocent drivers, pedestrians, and shoppers across the country are victims of racial profiling. And these discriminatory police stops and searches have reached epidemic proportions in recent years” (About the campaign against racial profiling, 2008). As you can see in Figure 1, the Department of Justice and the Bureau of Justice Statistics conducted their own research regarding the percentage of drivers stopped according to their race. In 2002-2005 there has been an average of almost the same amount of stops within Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics. You can also see that many Hispanics and Blacks have not only been stopped but also have been searched. In 2005, 9.5% of Black people have been searched, 8.8% of Hispanic people have been searched, and 3.6% of White people have been searched.
This concludes that Blacks and Hispanics are more likely to be sees as criminals than Whites.
In addition, an interview given to Sergeant Ortega, a police sergeant at the El Paso County Jail Annex, mentioned that in these jails most people are either Black or Hispanics. He mentioned that more than 75% of this jail is filled with Black and Hispanics combined. Sergeant Ortega also mentioned that you could see a boundary line within these groups. Most Blacks and Hispanics gather together to eat lunch while Whites just hang out with people of their own race. Ortega says it is rare to see a White person hanging out with a Black man. Also, Ortega mentioned in his interview that racial profiling has increased over the years but not because that’s the way they do things but because people think that Hispanics and Blacks are the target who these cops are after. On the other hand, these cops mission is to fight crime not by race but by actually having criminal records or suspicion that allow them to stop a car. Ortega says it is just a coincidence that most criminals in the area of El Paso, TX happen to be Hispanics and Blacks.
What are the results of SB 1070 law being passed, and how has this affected Arizona’s citizens?
The effect of this law has had a negative impact on Arizona’s citizens. Arizona SB 1070 was approved on April 19, 2010 and signed by Governor Brewer on April 23, 2010. This law authorized police to demand papers providing citizenship or immigration status from anyone they stop and suspect of being in the country unlawfully. Many citizens have been affected by this law because many of them say that they don’t like to carry around important document like that because they do not want to lose them. They also say that this action violates their civil rights. “With more than 16 million people living in mixed-status families-containing at least one undocumented immigrant and one U.S citizen-it is impossible to separate the undocumented from the documented. So it should come as no surprise that in states such as Arizona that have passed anti-immigrant bills, the Latino community as a whole feels targeted” (Kelley; Fitz; Wolgin; Garcia, 2012). Many Arizona citizens keep protesting against this law until they claim the S.B. 1070 unconstitutional. Many Latinos have gathered together very frequently to protest
everywhere they can. They feel that racial profiling targets them and will harm, rather than strengthen the community’s safety. “The Center for American Progress
Action Fund commissioned Latino Decisions to conduct a poll, which surveyed 500 Latino registered voters nationwide, with a margin of error of 4.4 percent”
(Kelley; Fitz; Wolgin; Garcia, 2012). They had to vote whether they supported or oppose to the Supreme Court’s decision to allow the racial profiling provision of Arizona’s S.B. 1070 to go into effect. This resulted in two-thirds of all Latino voters stated that they opposed it, while less than thirty percent said that they supported it. They also conducted another survey asking if they thought that allowing police to check immigration status will increase community safety. Twenty-seven percent of them agreed that it would increase community safety. On the other hand, seventy percent disagreed with the question.
In addition, an interview given to Sergeant Ortega, a police sergeant at the El Paso County Jail Annex, mentioned that in these jails most people are either Black or Hispanics. He mentioned that more than 75% of this jail is filled with Black and Hispanics combined. Sergeant Ortega also mentioned that you could see a boundary line within these groups. Most Blacks and Hispanics gather together to eat lunch while Whites just hang out with people of their own race. Ortega says it is rare to see a White person hanging out with a Black man. Also, Ortega mentioned in his interview that racial profiling has increased over the years but not because that’s the way they do things but because people think that Hispanics and Blacks are the target who these cops are after. On the other hand, these cops mission is to fight crime not by race but by actually having criminal records or suspicion that allow them to stop a car. Ortega says it is just a coincidence that most criminals in the area of El Paso, TX happen to be Hispanics and Blacks.
What are the results of SB 1070 law being passed, and how has this affected Arizona’s citizens?
The effect of this law has had a negative impact on Arizona’s citizens. Arizona SB 1070 was approved on April 19, 2010 and signed by Governor Brewer on April 23, 2010. This law authorized police to demand papers providing citizenship or immigration status from anyone they stop and suspect of being in the country unlawfully. Many citizens have been affected by this law because many of them say that they don’t like to carry around important document like that because they do not want to lose them. They also say that this action violates their civil rights. “With more than 16 million people living in mixed-status families-containing at least one undocumented immigrant and one U.S citizen-it is impossible to separate the undocumented from the documented. So it should come as no surprise that in states such as Arizona that have passed anti-immigrant bills, the Latino community as a whole feels targeted” (Kelley; Fitz; Wolgin; Garcia, 2012). Many Arizona citizens keep protesting against this law until they claim the S.B. 1070 unconstitutional. Many Latinos have gathered together very frequently to protest
everywhere they can. They feel that racial profiling targets them and will harm, rather than strengthen the community’s safety. “The Center for American Progress
Action Fund commissioned Latino Decisions to conduct a poll, which surveyed 500 Latino registered voters nationwide, with a margin of error of 4.4 percent”
(Kelley; Fitz; Wolgin; Garcia, 2012). They had to vote whether they supported or oppose to the Supreme Court’s decision to allow the racial profiling provision of Arizona’s S.B. 1070 to go into effect. This resulted in two-thirds of all Latino voters stated that they opposed it, while less than thirty percent said that they supported it. They also conducted another survey asking if they thought that allowing police to check immigration status will increase community safety. Twenty-seven percent of them agreed that it would increase community safety. On the other hand, seventy percent disagreed with the question.
Another poll that The Center for American Progress Action Fund conducted was asking citizens of Arizona if they thought in the future immigrants may be less likely to report a crime or volunteer information to police. Only 28% of them disagreed and 68% of them agreed as you can see in Figure 2 on the left side. “Most of us see absolutely no way to apply this law, to enforce this law, without racial profiling, without stopping you as an example because you may look different or foreign to someone, ”says Antonillo Villaraigosa, mayor of Los Angeles. “The answer to fixing our broken immigration system cannot be a patchwork of racial profiling laws,” adds Janet Murguia, president and CEO of National Council of La Raza. “These laws have caused great Harm to Latino families and other residents of these states. Unconstitutional bills like S.B. 1070 are false solutions that distract from the only real solution-comprehensive immigration reform at the federal level”” (Kelley; Fitz; Wolgin; Garcia, 2012).
In conclusion, racial profiling occurs in many states in which it has made all victims feel discriminated. Racial profiling has a negative effect along with a positive effect. It reduces crime rates but on the other hand, it also stereotypes and discriminates people of color, race, and religion. This analysis makes you understand why racial profiling can be positive but at the same time it can be negative.
In conclusion, racial profiling occurs in many states in which it has made all victims feel discriminated. Racial profiling has a negative effect along with a positive effect. It reduces crime rates but on the other hand, it also stereotypes and discriminates people of color, race, and religion. This analysis makes you understand why racial profiling can be positive but at the same time it can be negative.
References:
About the campaign against racial profiling. (2008, March 20). Retrieved from http://www.aclu.org/racial-justice/about-campaign-against-racial-profiling
Can racial profiling be a useful way to identify potential criminals?. (2008, February 1). Retrieved from http://www.helium.com/debates/135077-can-racial-profiling-be-a-useful-way-to-identify-potential- criminals/side_by_side
Face the truth: Racial profiling across america [Web]. (2010). Retrieved from http://www.rightsworkinggroup.org/content/face-truth-racial-profiling-across-america
Hammer, A. J. (Producer) (2012). Tyler perr'ys racial profiling story [Web]. Retrieved from http://www.cnn.com/video/
Kelley, A., Fitz, M., Wolgin, P.,& Garcia, A. (2012, August 3). Latinos voice continues concerns about s.b. 1070. Retrieved from latinos-voice-continued-concerns-about-s-b-1070
Lamberth, J. (1998, August 16). Driving while black; a statistician proves that prejudice still rules the road. Retrieved from http://www.ou.edu/cls/online/lstd2323/pdfs/unit1_lamberth.pdf
Rushing, K. (2013, March 1). [Web log message]. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/keith-rushing/dissecting-racial-profiling_b_2740246.html
White, black, and hispanic drivers who were stopped by police at similar rates. (2009). [Print Photo]. Retrieved from http://www.project.org/info.php?recordID=168
Zakaria, F. (2002, July 8). Freedom vs. security. Newsweek, Retrieved from http://0-www.lexisnexis.com.lib.utep.edu/hottopics/lnacademic/